Overview of Ballistics

Ballistics is the study of moving projecti1es in flight and what affects them.
Every shooter should understand basic ballistics because of the distances modern firearms can shoot. Shotguns can fire shot more than the distance of a football field. Handguns can shoot a bullet more than one and a half kilometres and some rifles can shoot further than five kilometres. It is also important because different ammunition has different penetrating effects; the wrong projectile in hunting may simply go right through a game target rather than stop.
Ballistics tables for firearms and the ammunition tell you the effective range of ammuni­tion, but bullets and shot can travel much farther than their effective ranges. To hunt or shoot safely, it is not only essential to know the effective range but also the dangerous range, ie. how far that firearm and its ammunition will shoot. (See Diagram below)
 

As any cartridge reloader will tell you the range and speed of a projectile depends on a number of factors. In particular different gunpowders and different measures of the one powder have considerable bearing on the ballistics of a projectile.
Reloading is a process that should not be undertaken without proper training.

Trajectory is the path of the shot or bullet during its flight. Several forces affect this particularly gravity, air resistance and the original amount of energy from the powder charge.

• Gravity - acts upon the bullet throughout its flight causing it to fall towards the ground as it is travelling forward. This results in a downward curved path.
• Air Resistance - air resists the passage of the bullet slowing its flight
• Energy - the strength of the "push" the bullet receives from the burning powder charge. For example, a .30-06-calibre cartridge contains much more powder than a .22 cal long-rifle bullet. Therefore, its bullet will travel farther and faster.

The muzzle of a firearm usually must be raised from the horizontal position to compensate for trajectory. The trajectory of a projectile is slightly curved, often crossing the line of sight twice on the way to a target. For example, with a rifle firing a .30-06 Springfield cartridge, "zeroed" at 150 metres or yards, a 18O grain bullet will cross the sight line travelling upwards at about 25 metres or yards in front of the muzzle.
At about 100 metres, it will be 2.5 cm or higher than the sight line. It will come back down through the sight line at 150 metres or yards. At 200 metres or yards, the bullet will be over five centimetres or two inches lower than the sight line.

Projectile Flight

Modern hunting projectiles are designed to deliver maximum impact to the game. This is rated as killing power or impact energy. Before firing at a target the hunter must consider what happens to a projectile, after it leaves the firearm. In particular the possibility of ricochets should be considered before shooting in the field. Generally suitable hunting bullets or fragments there-from will not travel far, if at all, after properly hitting an animal. However other possibilities such as a miss, marginal hit, or the chance of hitting something small such as twigs in front of the target should prudently be considered. As a rule of thumb allow 100 m either side of line of sight to be in the primary danger zone.

A stable ricochet is a bullet that does not break up on hitting, but continues on beyond the target at a possible deviation of 100 - with very large heavy bullets possibly travelling up to 2.8 km from the shooting position
An unstable ricochet is caused by a damaged bullet or parts of a bullet deviating widely from the point of impact; some may even return for about 50 metres towards the shooter.
A secondary projectile can be stones or hard particles given energy by bullet impact or a bullet fired at hard metal or even hard wood, which may rebound towards the shooter.

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Bullets and Cartridges

Correctly matching the proper ammunition to your firearm sounds simple. But it can be confusing. Match the wrong ammo to your gun and you have a dangerous situation. There have been cases of guns being destroyed; literally blown apart by the explosion caused by putting the wrong ammunition into a firearm. In some extreme cases, shooters and even bystanders have been seriously injured or even killed. The following chart shows some examples. As can be seen in the chart, cartridge names are often similar and many different "names" may fit the same calibre, so it is absolutely essential to read the whole name of a cartridge before selecting it for your firearm.
 

Whether you are shooting a rifle, or shotgun, there are three basic steps to matching the firearm and ammunition:

• Read the specific calibre or gauge designations on the side of the barrel. And be very specific. For example, if it says ". 270 Winchester," it does not mean ". 270 Weatherby."
• Shotgun barrels should give the gauge and the length of the chamber: "12 gauge for 2 3/4 inch shells" or "20 gauge magnum for 3 inch shells."
• Read the information on the lid of the box. Again, be very specific. For example, the lid on a box of rifle ammunition may say ". 270 Winchester 130 Gr. Power Point." This means it is a .270 Winchester calibre cartridge loaded with a soft-point bullet weighing 130 grains.

Shot sizes are designated by numbers, with the larger numbers indicating smaller shot unless the number is followed by a "B" for buckshot. The largest is 00B, followed by OB, 1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, T, BBB, BB, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ½, 8, 9 and 10.
 

• The final step is to match the information on the barrel with the information on the box before you go shooting. If you are in doubt, ask a more experienced shooter, a gunsmith or a qualified gun shop attendant. In many large retail outlets, especially discount types of stores, the attendants may not know.

A cartridge is the ammunition used in a rifle. Cartridges are available in two forms: rimfire and centre-fire. These terms describe both where the primer is located at the base of the case and where the firing pin strikes the cartridge case when the trigger is pulled.
 

Rimfire Cartidge Centrefire

Basic Safety

Remember where the "brain" of the firearms is located. It is not in the chamber, at the muzzle, or in the safety mechanism. The brain of the firearm is located in the head of the person handling that firearm. Firearm users must be thinking constantly; they can never relax. Firearms we think are unloaded sometimes are loaded. Firearms we think have the safety catch engaged sometimes do not. (In fact it is good practice not to rely on a safety catch. Some are very reliable, others are not.)

Firearms we think are mechanically sound may be faulty without us knowing about it.

As insurance companies stress, the longer a person drives a motor vehicle, the greater his probability of being involved in an accident. Similarly, experienced hunters know the longer a person handles a firearm, the greater the probability that he will have it discharge unexpectedly.
 If  the muzzle is pointed in a safe direction, no harm will be done. However, if the muzzle is not pointed in a safe direction, a tragic accident is likely to occur. Valuable property, an animal or even a person can be struck by the bullet or shot charge. Think about how you would feel if you shot your dad, best friend or even your favourite dog. What is a safe direction? Normally, we think of the direction up as being safe all of the time. But this may not be so, especially if you are in a building with another floor above you. Safe is a direction where nothing will be harmed if the firearm should discharge unexpectedly. That might be up or down or to one side or the other. You must make that decision, based upon the situation and good judgment.

Ten Commandments of safe handling

1. Always keep the muzzle pointed in a safe direction.

As we've just read, a firearm can go off when we least expect it. But if the muzzle of that firearm is pointed in a safe direction, no harm will be done. Keep in mind this means you must think ahead and keep the muzzle under control every second you are handling a firearm, even if you stumble or fall. It also means you must place a firearm in a vehicle or boat or even in your home so it is pointed in a safe direction. Hunters must be especially aware of this rule as they load and unload their firearms.

2. Treat every firearm as if it were loaded.

This commandment goes along with the first. If you assume the firearm is loaded and treat it accordingly, you will keep the muzzle pointed safely. And, you will be prepared for anything including a mechanical failure or a human error.

3. Always make sure the firearm is unloaded and keep the action open except when actually hunting or preparing to shoot.

As soon as you pick up a firearm, keep the muzzle pointed in a safe direction, open the action and check the chamber and magazine to make sure it is unloaded. Never accept another person's word that a firearm is unloaded and never accept a firearm from another person with the action closed.

4. Be sure the barrel and action are clear of obstructions and that you have the proper ammunition for the firearm you are carrying.

Mud, snow, dirt, excess oil, faulty ammunition, or any obstruction, in the barrel of a firearm can cause the gun to blow up or the barrel to bulge if you attempt to fire a round through the blocked barrel. Always check the barrel for obstructions before you start to hunt and immediately after you have stumbled or taken a fall. Completely unload the firearm and disassemble it to look through the bore. If you must look down the barrel from the muzzle end, place a white handkerchief or rag in the empty, open action before you look. Improper ammunition also can cause a firearm's barrel or action to blow up. Carry only the ammunition made for the firearm you are using.

5. Never point a firearm at anything you do not want to shoot. Avoid all horseplay .

A firearm is not a toy. It is a useful tool for a serious sport. Earlier there was a discussion of good muzzle control, of always pointing the muzzle in a safe direction; however, there are times people deliberately point firearms at things they don't intend to shoot, sometimes make-believe targets. This is a violation of the muzzle control rule. Never use a telescopic sight as a substitute for binoculars. Think about what you are doing; pointing your rifle at an unidentified target, possibly another person. Horseplay and firearms don't mix. Hunting is fun, but playing around with firearms can be a deadly mistake. Safe firearms handling and hunting are serious and require thoughtful, serious effort and judgment.

6. Never shoot at a flat, hard surface or water.

Bullets will ricochet or bounce off flat, hard surfaces such as rocks, concrete, metal, or water. Ricochets are impossible to control. Remember that projectile is your responsibility from the time it leaves the muzzle of your firearm until it comes to rest.

7. Store firearms and ammunition separately.

This helps insure the safety of people around you and of your equipment. Always store firearms unloaded and locked up separately. This is not only prudent it is the law. That helps to keep unwanted hands off your firearms, but should anyone gain access to the firearm, he will be less likely to have an accident if the ammunition is locked up separately and not readily available. Owning a firearm carries the responsibility of safe storage.

8. Avoid alcohol and other drugs before or during hunting or other uses of firearms.

Alcohol and drugs can affect your judgment and dull your senses. This can create a dangerous environment for the handling of firearms. People taking prescription drugs should check with their doctors or pharmacists about possible problems before shooting or hunting. Remember, good judgment is required in the decisions a hunter must make.

9. Never climb a fence, tree, or jump a ditch with a loaded firearm.

When you encounter a hazard in the field that may cause you to lose muzzle control, unload the firearm before trying to negotiate that hazard. Field hazards can be fences, ditches or creeks, steep hillsides, thick brush, or slippery terrain. Hunters often get in a hurry trying to cross a fence or deep ditch with steep banks and fail to unload their firearm before crossing. Many end up in the accident statistics as a result. It takes only seconds to unload or load a firearm; seconds worth a lifetime if you stumble or drop the firearm.

10. Be sure of  your target before you squeeze the trigger.

Vision and hearing are the two most important senses to a hunter. You may hear a game animal before you see it, but you must see the animal clearly and positively identify it before you aim and pull the trigger. Some hunters are shot accidentally because the shooter did not positively identify his target before he pulled the trigger. It is easy to fool yourself that a little spot of brown is a deer's shoulder, but those same bits of moving colour could be an inappropriately dressed hunter. Safe hunters see the whole animal clearly, then make sure the background behind the animal is safe for the shot before aiming and shooting.
Shooting at an animal standing on the horizon or at a bad angle in the air or up a tree can be dangerous. Good hunters pick specific targets such as the animal's shoulder before firing. Once a shot is fired, it can never be called back.
For the responsible hunter, there are two aspects to behaviour; they are Active behaviour and Passive behaviour. In the Active Phase hunters must be responsible for their actions, including how they handle their firearms. In the field, most of these actions, from clearly identifying targets and backgrounds to safely crossing obstacles, are pretty obvious.
But good hunters also take care of the passive side of their sport. The main purpose of passive hunting is to avoid sending dangerous signals to other hunters, whether they are in your party or someone you might meet in the field.
One part of hunting passively is the proper selection of clothing and similar equipment. A smart   hunter wears a bright orange hat or cap whenever practical for dense forest hunting. Hunters often wear traditional brown or even camouflage clothing and this is probably fine so long as you wear the hat. You will find this invaluable when hunting with others. Most animals don't recognise bright orange.
 

Overseas research demonstrates conclusively that bright orange clothing is the least obvious to game animals.

In the excitement of encountering game, as one hunter swings his gun, he or she may fail to see a brown or camo-clad companion.

The prudent hunter does not wear clothing that could cause another hunter to mistake him for a game animal. The prudent hunter sits still when he hears something approach. If it is game, he positively identifies it before he shoulders his firearm to aim. If it is another hunter, he calls out rather than waving, making an animal call or taking some other action that could cause him to be mistaken for a game animal. In this situation, the word "Stop" is the most effective for another hunter to recognise.!

Remember that some hunters convince themselves the game they are seeking is close at hand. They want to see it. In their minds, anything that moves will be game, so the wave of a hand is likely to be mistaken as something the game would do. The prudent hunter must avoid actions that could be mistaken for those of game. He must always assume he is not the only hunter in the area and always make sure the other hunter recognises that a human, not game, is nearby.

If you are going to be a safe hunter, you must apply the rules of safe firearms handling every second you are in the field. There are several ways to carry your firearm safely and still have it ready for quick use. No matter which carry you are using, the following rules must apply:
¨ -The muzzle must be under control, pointed away from you and all others.
¨ -The safety catch must be "ON." (or the action open . It is wise not to rely on safety catches)
¨ -All fingers must be outside the trigger guard.
 

Range Rules
Most firing ranges have strict protocols for use, which a shooter must become familiar with. Included are such restrictions as those following:

• Rifles must remain unloaded at all times whilst not on the firing mound.
• Bolts and magazines must not be in the rifles whilst not on firing mound
• Rifles must be carried with the muzzle pointing upwards or skywards while being conveyed to or from the firing mound.
• Firearms must always be pointing towards the butts until proven safe by the Range Officer.
• Live ammunition may only be loaded into rifles on the order of the Range Officer -'LOAD'.
• Nobody is to handle a firearm whilst the range is declared "closed' by the Range Officer, and while people are forward of the mound changing targets.
• When shooting is finished the Range Officer will inspect each firearm. When he is satisfied the firearm is clear of live rounds he shall call, "CLEAR". Only then is the firearm able to be removed from the firing ground
• If a miss fire occurs or a bullet is stuck in the breach call the Range Officer.
• Never at any time adjust or alter trigger Systems.  This is very serious business.
• Persons not firing on the mound must not wander around among the other shooters as this disrupts the concentration of the shooters
• On a loud command "Cease Firing", no more shots are to be fired.
• The Range Officer is in command. His authority is absolute and must be obeyed at all times.
• No idle talk or chatter is to be carried on whilst on the firing mound.  Every shooter must be able to hear the orders of the Range Officer and concentrate on the job at hand.

TWO-HANDED READY CARRY
 

With one hand at the grip and the other on the fore-end, the firearm is carried muzzle up across the front of the body.  This is the best all-around carry because it gives the best control of the firearm, especially in thick brush, weeds or when a fast shot might be necessary. Care must be taken not to use this carry when someone is to the side to which the muzzle would be directed.

The firearm is grasped firmly with one hand at the balance point and carried with the arm extended down to the side. This carry is safe when several people are walking abreast or when you are alone. It also can be used when you are the leader in a single-file formation. Do not use it when you are following others. Do not use it when you are walking in brush or snow because it is too easy to get an obstruction in the barrel from these hazards.

The firearm is hung from the shoulder by a leather or web strap with the muzzle pointing up. The leather or web strap, often called a sling, is attached to the butt of the stock and the fore-end. Many hunters use this carry when walking a long distance before taking a shot. It leaves both hands free while the hunter is standing. When walking, one hand should have a good grasp on the sling to keep the muzzle pointed upward and to keep the firearm from slipping off the shoulder. Do not use this carry in thick brush because the gun could be knocked from your shoulder. Never carry a loaded firearm in the sling position. If the strap slips of the shoulder you don’t have muzzle control.

The firearm is tucked under the armpit and over the arm just in front of the elbow. This carry is safe walking in open terrain. In brushy areas, it is easy for the barrel to be snagged and pulled downward. This carry should not be used when others are ahead of you. The action is open or the bolt lifted. Not suitable for long treks in brush as foreign matter can lodge in action. Better to unload and use Trail Carry.

One hand is on or near the grip, while the fore-end of the firearm is allowed to nestle in the crook of the elbow of the opposite arm. This is a very comfortable, secure carry. There is one major drawback. The muzzle is pointed to the side, so it should not be used when someone is walking beside you on the muzzle side.

One hand grasps the firearm at the grip while the weight of the firearm is rested across the top of the shoulder with the muzzle pointed rearward. Usually this position is most comfortable with the top of the barrel and action resting on the shoulder and the underside of the gun upward. Since the muzzle is out of sight, special care must be used to keep it pointed upward. This carry should not be used when others are behind you. Never carry a firearm over your shoulder as you grip it by or near the muzzle. This type of carry was very popular with older muzzler-loader shooters as well as some modern firearms users.

You must choose a carry that will keep the muzzle pointed safely.
The carry you use will depend upon the terrain and where other hunters are walking. Hunters often position themselves in a line. Assume three hunters are after rabbits. They form a line, positioning themselves about 50 or 60 yards apart. What carry or carries may each hunter use safely?

Obviously, the hunter in the centre of the group is the most restricted. The shoulder, trail or side carries would be the safest for him to use. However, he must not allow the muzzle to get out of control as he tries to mount the gun for a quick shot.

The hunter on the left could use the two-handed ready, the side, the trail, or the shoulder carries. In addition, he could use the cradle carry safely, provided the muzzle was pointed to his left, away from his hunting companions.
Similarly, the hunter on the right could use the two-handed ready, the side, the trail, or the shoulder carries. He could use the two-handed-ready or cradle carries only if he pointed the muzzle to the right, away from the other hunters. The sling carry would be safe for all three, if they had slings for their firearms. Usually, Australian hunters fit their rifles with slings, but seldom fit slings to shotguns as the Europeans do. Some hunters use slip-on types of shotgun slings. Whenever you carry a firearm with a sling, unload the chamber and be sure to keep one hand on the sling so the muzzle stays pointed upward. The hand on the sling also will prevent the firearm from slipping or being knocked from your shoulder.

Zone of Fire

When there is a group of hunters, we call the area into which a hunter may shoot safely his zone of fire. Sometimes this zone of fire involves two or more hunters who are hunting together. We must consider the hunters who are in a group, but scattered. It is very important for each hunter to know his zone of fire, to know where he can safely shoot and where he should not shoot, particularly where high-powered rifles are involved.
When groups of hunters go together and plan to hunt the same general area, they must set up zones so each knows about where the others are hunting. Moving into another hunter's zone is unethical and dangerous. These zones are to ensure that each hunter knows the location of his hunting partners. This can be accomplished visually or by calling out to one another, but this knowledge of one another’s position is critical to safely. Once you no longer know the exact location of one or more of your hunting partners, you no longer have a zone of fire, so don't shoot.
This same rule for zones of fire should apply to waterfowl hunters. While these hunters may be standing almost shoulder to shoulder, they often get excited when a large flock of ducks starts to drop into the decoys. Swinging out of your zone of fire can be dangerous for several reasons. The most obvious one is the danger of striking a companion with a shot. Equally as dangerous is the possibility of banging your gun into your companion's, knocking one or both of the guns to the ground.
Another very real danger is the muzzle blast or bang from a shotgun that goes off next to your head. This can cause permanent hearing loss, while flying bits of unburned powder or plastic shavings from wads can damage eyes. Stay in your zone of fire.

Personal protection

In addition to protecting your companions, think of protecting yourself. A part of being a prudent hunter not mentioned earlier is to protect your eyes and your ears. Both are critical to being a good, safe hunter.
Eye protection is something many hunters never think about. If they are not required to wear glasses for vision, they go without. However, hunting accident statistics show that many accidents possibly could have been mitigated by the wearing of the proper eye protection.

Good quality shooting glasses help the hunter in many ways:
If shooting glasses are of the proper colour they can help make targets easier to see in varied light situations such as early morning, late evening, bright sunlight or dark, cloudy conditions.
Proper shooting glasses protect the hunter's eyes from any flying particles of unburned gunpowder, lead or even hot gases if a cartridge case or shot-shell ruptures in the gun chamber.

Proper shooting glasses protect the hunter's eyes as he moves through brush. While not counted in firearm accident statistics, every year several hunters have eyes seriously injured by branches and sticks as they move through woodlands and brush.
Proper shooting glasses can deflect projectiles fired from relatively close ranges, saving your sight or possibly your life.

Shooting glasses are made basically of three different materials: safety glass, impact-resistant plastic and polycarbonate. Some come with interchangeable lenses, which allow the hunter to switch colours according to light conditions. The key is to protect your eyes. You only have two and they are critical to being a good hunter. Try to imagine what it would be like to hunt with only one or with no eyes.
Ear protection is equally important. Many hunters are quick to point out that they usually hear game approaching long before they see it.  However, there are many older hunters, especially those who shoot often, who have suffered major hearing losses. They no longer can use their ears to hunt. You can avoid hearing loss by using proper ear protection.  While practicing your shooting, whether using a shotgun, a .22 calibre or a centerfire, always wear ear protection. The foam throwaway type of hearing protectors which insert into the ear, work exceptionally well. Some shooters prefer others like the earmuff type. And some shooters will double up, using the type which insert into the beginning of the ear canal and the earmuffs, especially when they are on a busy range with loud centerfire rifles

In the field, most hunters are reluctant to wear hearing protection because they say it interferes with their hearing game. However, hearing loss can happen in the field. Some hunters decide whether or not to wear hearing protection based upon their specific activity. The choice is yours. Remember that damage to your hearing from the constant banging of a firearm seldom can be repaired and many hunters consider their hearing almost as important as their eyes.
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Most Common Shooting Positions
 
 

The standing position is the most unstable shooting position from which to fire though of necessity it is probably the most used by hunters. To shoot from the standing position, first, turn your body approximately 45 degrees to the right of the target. Place your feet shoulder width apart. Support the rifle with your left arm and hand. Hold the left arm against your body for extra support where possible. Hold the stock firmly against your shoulder with the right hand. Keep holding the rifle firmly but not tightly. If there is too much waver, do not shoot. Resting or supporting the rifle on a stable object such as a tree or large rock, or using a sling will help steady your shot. This position is better than the normal standing position but not as steady as either the prone or sitting positions.

The sitting position is one of the steadiest shooting positions. Sit solidly on the ground, with your legs crossed or open and your body positioned about 30 degrees to the right of the line of aim. Place your left elbow near but not on the bony part of the left knee. Tuck the elbow as far under the rifle as possible. Place the right elbow on or, near the right knee. Hold the rifle firmly but do not grip it tightly. If bracing your body against a tree or rock to steady your aim, be careful that the recoil will not force you against the support. Reverse the procedure if left-handed. A variation of this is to sit cross-legged with the arms crossed and the rifle cradled in the crook of the left elbow. This places your body at almost right angles to the line of fire.

In the kneeling position turn to about a 45-degree angle to the target. Kneel on your right knee and place your left foot slightly forward. Sit on the heel or the side of the right foot. Place the left elbow near but not on the bony part of the left knee, as far under the rifle as you can. If you are left-handed, kneel on the left knee with the right foot forward.

The prone position is the steadiest shooting position. It is good for firing accurate long distance shots if tall grass or dense brush does not obscure the line of sight to the target.

The prone position is probably the least used position unless the hunter has plenty of time to set up an ambush, carefully picking a clear field of fire. If right-handed, lie on your stomach with your body angled slightly to the left of the line of aim. If you are left-handed, reverse the position. Keep your back straight and legs in a relaxed position. The right leg should be bent slightly. Both elbows should be bent and your shoulders curved slightly forward to form a solid upper body position. The upper body and arms support the rifle weight. When shooting, you can, use a rifle sling for extra support. Hold the rifle grip with the trigger hand. Place your opposite arm through the sling as far as it will go. Swing your arm in an outward circular motion, ending with your hand under the fore end of the rifle and the sling across the back of your hand.
 
 

Shooting a shotgun is different from shooting a rifle. With a rifle you aim precisely. With a shotgun you point at the target. The index finger of the left hand lies under the stock fore-end rather than wrapping around it. Accurate shotgun shooting requires you to make a fast but smooth series of movements of the eyes, body and gun. To achieve this, stand like a boxer: feet spread apart, well ba1anced and body free to swing right or left. This position allows rapid movement.

When firing a shotgun, you lean your body weight to the leading leg (left leg if you shoot right-handed and vice versa). The leading hand holds the shotgun fore-end and points naturally to the, target area.  Aim the shotgun by pointing it at the target and "tapping" the trigger instead of squeezing it. With moving targets, continue to move the barrel with them as and after you fire. Otherwise, the shot will miss behind the target.

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Sights and Marksmanship

Rifle Sights : There are three basic types of rifle sights in common usae.

Open Sights
Most factory-ordered rifles are equipped with an open rear sight and a "bead" or "post" front sight. To aim properly, the top of the bead or post should be centred within the rear sight and placed on the bottom of the target.

Peep or Aperture Sights
The rear sight has a small hole that the shooter must look or peep through. The front sight is usually a post sight. When looking through the round peephole, the eye automatically centres the front sight in the centre of the rear peep - at the strongest point of light. The target sits on top of the front post.

Telescopic Sights
The telescopic sight is a small telescope mounted on your firearm. The scope sight magnifies the target and does away with aligning rear and front sights. The aiming point inside the scope sight is called the reticle. To aim, the shooter looks through the scope and puts the crosshairs reticle on the target.

Sight Adjustment

When using a rifle with open sights - if your shots are consistently hitting the target in small groups, but are off centre, then you must adjust the sights. On most modern firearms the vertical (elevation) adjustment and the horizontal (windage) adjustment is on the rear sight. The rule of sight adjustment is - move the rear sight in the same direction you want to move the hits on the target.
To get this group on the centre of the target, move the rear sight to the right. Peep sights and scope sights work the same way. Turn the adjustment screws in the direction indicated on the sight.

Sighting In

To be effective, a rifle must be properly sighted in. To understand bullet placement, you need to know about trajectory. Trajectory is the arc or curved path of a bullet in flight. The path of a bullet is curved or follows an arc because gravity pulls the bullet toward the earth. If you hold a rifle barrel level and fire a shot, the bullet begins to drop the instant it leaves the muzzle. The further the bullet travels, the faster it drops.

To hit a distant target, a rifle barrel must be angled slightly upward. Aiming the rifle with the barrel at an upward angle causes the bullet to cross the line of sight on the way up, at a point close to the muzzle. The dropping bullet will intersect or cross the line of sight again on the way down, at the target. Where the bullet crosses the line of sight on its downward path is the distance at which the rifle is sighted in. You can control where the bullet crosses the line of sight on its downward path by changing the sight adjustment and hence the angle of the barrel. As a general rule most bigger bore rifles (.303, .308, .30-06) may be sighted in for 200 metres.

Set up a target with a safe backstop at 25 metres and fire at least three carefully placed test shots. Be sure to use the same type of ammunition (including bullet weight) you will use when hunting. Check the target. If your three shots are well grouped but not near the centre of the target, adjust the sights.
Remember  - move the rear sight in the same direction you want to move the hits on the target. If you want to move the hits up, move the rear sight up - if you want to move the hits to the right, move the rear sight to the right. After you have adjusted the sights, fire three more shots to make certain you have a good grouping at the centre of the target.

If your shots are on the point of aim at 25 metres, they should be on the point again at approximately 200 metres due to the bullet's trajectory.

Move the target to 200 metres and fire three more shots. Make any necessary sight adjustments for this distance. If a 200-metre range is not available, move your target to 100 metres. At 100 metres, bullets from a big game rifle should strike dead centre, but 3-7 cm. high depending upon rifle calibre and bullet type and weight. Consult a manufacturer's ammunition catalogue.

When sighting in, your rifle should be shot from a well-padded rest, under calm wind conditions.

Marksmanship

A responsible hunter is able and determined to stalk an animal within sure range and fire a single killing shot. Make sure you carry a firearm that is in good working condition, is adequate for the game you intend to hunt, and is properly sighted-in. Rifle calibre and bullet weight must be properly matched to the game animal you intend to hunt. Consult ammunition guides for further information.

You should note that the larger calibre rifles with high muzzle energies usually produce heavy recoil, and as a result, may cause flinching in some shooters. This will reduce their ability to place a single killing shot in the animal's heart/lung region. Simply owning a large calibre firearm does not guarantee big game success. You must become comfortable with the rifle you intend to use, and practice basic marksmanship techniques.
These techniques include aiming, trigger squeeze, breath control, follow-through, and shooting position. A well-placed bullet from a .308 can be just as effective as that from a 300 Winchester magnum within reasonable distances. Use a firearm with which you can adequately group your shots at 150 metres, and that produces adequate hitting power at the ranges you expect to encounter game.

Breathing control
Correct breathing control is essential for consistent accuracy.
Even normal breathing has to be controlled for the hunter to be able to fire effective shots. Immediately prior to squeezing the trigger:
Take a slightly deeper breath than normal.
Gently exhale about half the breath.
Retain the remaining breath, relax any tension, and fire the shot.

Trigger control

Trigger control is essential for accurate activation of the firing mechanism. Consistent accuracy requires the trigger to be squeezed (not pulled) when the sights appear to be satisfactorily aligned. The squeeze held constant, but not released, if the sights "wobble off" - then tightened further when the sight picture is once again OK; and so on alternately until at one moment of surprise the gun will discharge with barrel correctly aligned. If you think about it this method absolutely guarantees the gun will not fire except when aimed where you want it to be. Never pull a trigger. Position the index finger on the trigger half way between the fingertip and the first joint and squeeze as described above.

Good shooting is the ability to combine the techniques of firing the shot and many hours of practice to develop the physical and mental skills required. Effective hunters will spend time at the range prior to a trip to ensure that they are familiar with their firearm and ammunition.

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Humane Hunting

Vital Target Areas The vital areas of larger animals include the heart and major blood vessels, lungs, liver, the brain and spinal column. It is recommended that you place your shot in the heart/lung region of the animal. This is the largest target area on a game animal and it is the shot that most often presents itself when you are hunting. Generally too the skin on the lower body is easily penetrated whereas the skin on the upper shoulders and neck is often very thick particularly on goats and pigs.

This is the most humane shot you can make. Hits to this area, high in the heart, will rupture the aorta, the main artery leaving the heart, cutting off blood supply to the brain.  The animal generally becomes unconscious in seconds.

The goal of every hunter must be to ensure quick, humane kill.You must therefore choose your shot carefully. Shots to the brain and spinal cord are more difficult and should be passed up in favour of the heart/lung shot. The brain and spine are small targets and may be difficult to pick out on larger game animals. A miss by just a few centimetres can cause a crippling wound or even a ricochet off horn or antler. If you are not sure you can hit the vital area of an animal, don't shoot.

There are few hard and fast rules about suitability of specific firearms to specific game. The fundamental rule of course is to use enough gun. However using the wrong combination can cause problems either way. The optimum shot is one where a projectile destroys a vital organ without leaving the body. Too much power on the wrong projectile can result in the projectile travelling through the target and leaving the body without causing enough damage to a vital organ to result in rapid death. Writers like Nick Harvey and Col Allison have published volumes about optimum firearm cartridge combinations for specific targets, which is a topic somewhat beyond the scope of this document. However a few general suggestions could be made. See Table below:
 

The table is necessarily incomplete and conservative. For example many will tell you including myself that they have successfully hunted goats and pigs with a .22 rimfire. However only a fool would attempt to hunt a 90kg boar or a mature billygoat with a 22. Many factors can come into the equation including target size, range and wind conditions. Also important are projectile design and weight.

Tracking a Wounded Animal:

After you have fired at a large animal, observe it to see how it has reacted to your shot. The animal's behaviour may be a clue to where you hit it.
 

• Heart shot: The animal may immediately bolt or run off quickly. Generally, it will go only a few metres before losing consciousness and collapsing.
• Lung shot: The animal may leave at a fast walk, apparently unaffected. Sometimes a lung-shot animal makes coughing sounds. After going a short distance, it may stand still or lie down.
• Stomach shot: A poor shot that accidentally hits the animal in the paunch or rumen may not seem to affect the animal. It may walk or run away and lie down within 400 or 500 m if not disturbed or pursued. Sometimes an animal hit in this area behind the diaphragm will hunch over as it moves away.
• Spine shot: In most cases an animal hit in the spine will drop to the ground immediately. The animal is likely to be immobilised, not dead, and will require a finishing shot. Keep your eye on the animal in this situation, because a hit that causes spinal shock rather than spinal damage may only temporarily immobilise the animal. It may regain its feet quickly and run off.

Before you move from your shooting location, mark it by hanging up a glove or a bright object. Then you will be able to look back to your shooting spot as you search for sign.

 Later, you may need to return to determine the precise line of sight between your shooting spot and the place where the animal was standing.

Walk carefully to the place where the animal was standing when you shot. Do not cross the path the animal left by. When you arrive at the spot, mark it with flagging tape, a sheet of toilet paper or other biodegradable material - not by scuffing the ground, as you may disturb signs of the hit. If you have trouble finding the exact spot, search in gradually widening circles with the presumed hit site as the focal point, until you locate it.

At the hit site, look for hair, bone, blood, or stomach contents that might also indicate where the animal is hit. Of course, the presence of any hair, blood, or tissue indicates you have hit the animal, but the absence of sign does not necessarily mean you missed. Search the area repeatedly, looking at the vegetation as well as the ground for signs. You should always assume a hit. Once you have found signs of a hit and decided where you have likely shot the animal, begin waiting. It is best to wait at least half an hour with any hit, unless, of course, you have seen the animal go down or heard it go down heavily, nearby.

If you suspect a poor hit or a gut-shot animal, wait a short time. This will allow a fatally injured big game animal time to wander off, lie down and bleed internally until it is unable to get up again. The pain from an ineffectual shot that doesn’t result in an instant kill can be temporarily blocked by a wounded animal which means immediate pursuit will serve only to alarm the animal further and cause it to run faster and further making location more difficult. Heavy rain that is washing away a blood trail, or approaching darkness should be the only reasons to begin tracking sooner.

Two people on the trail of a hit are better than one, although you must both concentrate on walking quietly; avoid talking. One hunter can concentrate on tracking; the other hunter does a visual search ahead and to the sides for the animal itself. Stay in close contact, using hand signals. Remain cool and collected, following every rule for hunting safety. This is no time to be careless. The tracker should mark the trail with a biodegradable material.  Your marking allows you to establish the direction of travel and gives you a quick reference to the last fresh sign. Remove any material used to assist you in locating the animal.

Look for blood, hair, tracks and droppings. Blood and hair may be on bushes and grass as well as on the sides of trees that the animal has rubbed against. Sign may be scarce. If you lose the trail, walk in gradually widening circles from the last sign until you find more. A well-hit animal will bleed internally.
When the animal begins to move, its skin covers the entry hole and generally prevents a large blood trail. However, if the animal runs hard and the wound remains open, more blood will escape. Arterial blood from heart and lung shots will be bright red. If the hit is from the lung area, the blood may also be frothy. Blood from hits behind the diaphragm will be darker red. If it is accidentally hit in the paunch, the blood may contain small particles of undigested vegetation and appear greenish brown.
The animal's route through the bush will also give you information. If the animal begins to crash through dense brush, leaving blood on trees and shrubbery, or if there are indications of the animal stumbling, it is probably mortally wounded and staggering.  If however, the animal is avoiding obstructions and is meandering on its path, the wound may not be severe. Usually well hit animals will travel downhill and into the wind. They will also try to lie if not disturbed.
The hunter is obliged to make every possible effort to retrieve an animal he or she has hit The search begins with a thorough examination of the shooting site to determine if and where the animal was hit and continues with careful tracking to recover the animal. This is an important and rewarding part of any hunt.

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HUNTER ETHICS AND LAWS

Ethics are standards of behaviour or conduct, which are considered to be morally right. Ethics begin with the standard of behaviour of an individual. Each individual must make a personal judgement about whether certain behaviour is right or wrong.

Very often, groups of people share the same ethical beliefs.  When a group of hunters have similar ideas concerning ethical hunting behaviour, they often form a hunting party, club or association who expects its members to act according to the group code of ethics. In this situation, ethics are similar to laws. The ethics are written down and each member of the group agrees to abide by this code. Any member who violates the ethics agreed upon may be asked to resign from membership in the group or be penalised in some manner.

Sometimes, ethics are made laws. When a majority of the people believes an ethic or standard of behaviour is right for all, that ethic may become law. True sportsmen hunters obey the unwritten or moral code of practice as well as the formal written statutes.

Modern means of travel and firearms technology and optical sights have provided hunters with the advantage that targets can be clearly defined and taken with an instantaneous kill. Ethical hunting sportsmen do it this way.

The ethical hunter will instil in others the same principals he uses himself. This includes letting others know if he thinks their behaviour is out of line.

Shooting at road signs, chasing game in vehicles, road hunting and careless handling of firearms are unacceptable practices. The ethical hunter should be willing to testify if necessary because he knows the importance of obeying laws to preserve wildlife, the environment, and not least, recognises the sensitivities of others. It is up to all hunters to abide by the highest expectations of ethics at all times so as to maintain or improve the hunters’  public image.
 

Personal code of ethics
Personal ethics are unwritten laws which govern your behaviour at all times - when you are with others, and when you are alone.  They are your personal standard of conduct. Your personal code of ethics is based upon your respect for other people and their property, for all living things and their environment, and your own image of yourself.

Aldo Leopold, a pioneer in the field of wildlife management and a respected hunter said, "The hunter ordinarily has no gallery to applaud or disapprove conduct. Whatever the acts, they are dictated by conscience rather than by a mob of onlookers."

The basis of a personal code of ethics is a sense of decency. You must ask yourself repeatedly, "What if others behaved the way I am -- would I respect them?" Chances are you will have developed a personal code of ethics long before you became a hunter, because you want the respect of your parents and family, your friends and neighbours, you developed a certain standard of acceptable behaviour. If you have been on hunting trips, even before you were old enough to hunt game yourself, you gained important insight into how you are expected to act while hunting and learned some hunting ethics. These, and other experiences, will guide your behaviour in the future. As a mature adult your personal self-respect becomes the primary motivation for sound ethical behaviour rather than the approval of others.

Your personal code of ethics and your hunting behaviour may change through the years. It is usual for a hunter to go through five behaviour stages.

First the "shooter stage" - a time when shooting firearms is of primary interest. In this stage anything is fair game and putting lead in the air gives this hunter great satisfaction. Young or novice hunters often initially fall into this group, especially if they have not received adequate training. Unfortunately anything may be a target, including highway signs. Shooters in this category may be responsible for landowners posting their land as "No-Hunting".
Next is the "limiting-out stage" - when the hunters want, above all, to bag the legal limit of game they are hunting. In this stage, hunter satisfaction is gained through limiting out on the game being pursued. The success of each hunt is gauged by how close the daily bag is to the legal limit. A limit is bragging material. Some hunters never seem to outgrow this stage and always want just one more bird than everyone else in the hunting party.
The third stage is the "trophy stage" - the hunter is selective, primarily seeking out trophy animals of a particular species. Bagging a trophy animal is the determining factor in hunter satisfaction. This hunter will not shoot until he spots what may be a trophy animal.

Next is the "technique stage" - the emphasis is on HOW rather than WHAT is hunted. Hunter satisfaction, at this stage, comes from outwitting the game in its natural element. The fair chase principle of hunting where the hunter goes one on one with the animal is very important to the  shooter in this stage. The hunter may take great satisfaction from successfully decoying a flock of ducks or from tracking a deer or goats. Knowledge of the terrain, the animal being pursued, and how the hunter is positioned for a shot become the determining factors in the hunt. The kill is secondary or not important at all. These hunters match themselves against the game and take great satisfaction in outwitting the quarry. In some cases primitive equipment (bows, muzzle-loaders) may be used.
The last stage is called the "mellowing-out or philosophical stage". This is a time of enjoyment derived from the total hunting experience; the hunt, the companionship of other hunters and an appreciation of the outdoors. When a hunter has reached the mellowing-out stage of development, bagging game will be more symbolic than essential for satisfaction. A day in the field becomes its own reward. It is usually in this stage that the hunter fully appreciates his quarry; even develops an almost spiritual link with the animal and the wild.

Which of the above categories do you fall into? Why do you want to hunt? Do you just enjoy wildlife? Would you be as happy with a camera in your hand as with a gun? What gives you the most satisfaction at the end of a hunting day? Sort out the answers to these questions and take a look at the behaviour of your hunting companions. If you were a non-hunter or a landowner, how would you judge their actions? If you are not satisfied with the way someone hunts, chances are a non-hunter or landowner will not be either.

The hunter's personal code of ethics will change with passage through each of these five stages, often becoming more strict and imposing more constraints on behaviour and actions when hunting.
These self-imposed restrictions, however, will add to the enjoyment of the hunting experience, for the ethical hunter appreciates hunting most. Only the ethical hunter understands the new sense of freedom and independence that comes from hunting legally and ethically.

Ethics for consideration
Various people have proposed ethical standards, which they feel, should be adopted by all hunters. These are presented for your consideration below.  Consider each ethic carefully. Decide whether it is right or wrong in your view. If it is right, incorporate it into your personal code of hunting ethics and practice it when in the field. Your standards of conduct while hunting will be the true indicator of your personal code of ethics.
 

Hunter landowner relations

Each year many new "No Shooting” signs appear on land, which was once, open to hunting. The reason? some shooters who go into the field leave their sense of ethics and regard for the law at home. They think a hunting licence grants them the right to hunt what, when and where they please. The result? a gradual decrease in available hunting land and the creation of a negative hunting image amongst the non-hunting public.
 

Some Principles of Hunter-Landowner Relationships

Always ask for permission to hunt. Plan ahead and obtain permission beforehand Get permission for everyone that might hunt with you. One or two companions are usually acceptable; more than that is pushing it.
Hunt only in the areas designated by the landowner. Find out when and how you may hunt an area. Spotlighting may not be acceptable on that property.
Hunt only those species agreed to. Some farmers even regard feral goats as a potential cash crop, notwithstanding broader community values.
Control your dog. Don't disturb livestock.
Respect fences. If it is necessary to climb over them, climb over near a post. Always leave gates as you find them.
If you feel another visitor may have left a gate open, inquire at the house. You may save the farmer considerable trouble in searching for stray animals.  In any event, they will appreciate your concern.
Leave their fruit and crops alone. If you want some, buy them from the farmer. Don't drive or walk through standing crops.
Stay out of fields where people are working. Find out where it is safe to hunt and stay out of fields with standing crops.
Don't shoot towards buildings, stock or field workers.
Don't leave your rubbish behind. If you carry it in, you can carry it out.  Clean up your eating place or campsite and take all necessary fire precautions.
If successful, offer to share your game with the landowner. Limit the amount of game taken on the landowner's property to less than the bag limit. The landowner may accept one hunter limiting out but two or three taking their limit is greedy.
Pick up your empty cartridges or shells.
Do not block driveways, roads to fields, etc.
Respect farm roads and tracks especially after rain. They can be expensive to repair.
Be self-sufficient. Don’t rely on a landowner for backup food, water or fuel.

Ethical hunters realise they are guests of the landowner while hunting on private land. They make sure they are welcome by asking the landowner host for permission before hunting. On the rare occasions when permission is denied, they accept the situation gracefully. If successful in obtaining permission, thoughtful and considerate hunters often offer to spend some time helping the landowner with chores. If the offer is accepted, they cheerfully mend fences, or do whatever else is required. They may even use their special skills (eg tradesman).
They note the name and address of the host and sometime later, perhaps around Christmas, send a thankyou card expressing appreciation for the landowner's hospitality. Remember a landowner has no respect for those who trespass.  For the time it takes to ask, why not feel welcome and know you may be granted an opportunity to come back again?
 

The position of the landowners:

The livelihood of landowners is at stake when closed gates are left open or property is damaged.
They are concerned about the safety of their family and their personal possessions.
You, as the hunter, are a guest and an ambassador for all hunters.
You assume full responsibility for your actions.
Every time a hunter loses the respect of the landowner, at least one other hunting area is lost.

Ethical hunters operate in areas where their activities will not conflict with other people's enjoyment of the outdoors. They treat the land with respect - being careful not to litter the back- country or seriously damage its vegetation. They limit their use of vehicles to travel to and from the hunting area, always remaining on trails or developed roadways.

Ethical hunters  know that alcoholic beverages can seriously impair judgement while hunting. They restrict enjoyment of such drinks to the evening hours, after the firearms have been stored away and they can relax with companions and recollect the enjoyment of a day afield. Even then, they limit their drinking to ensure that their actions do not offend others - either their companions or other people who may be sharing the area with them.

An ethical hunter recognises that many people are offended by the sight of a bloody carcass tied over the hood of a car or a gut pile lying in full view of the road. Realising these things and having respect for the feelings and beliefs of others, ethical hunters make a special effort to avoid offending non-hunters.

Hunters appreciate that, for a variety of reasons, many people do not hunt nor do they want to hunt in the future. Also, we understand that some people are opposed to hunting for one reason or another. We do not regard these people as anything else other than normal human beings whose likes and dislikes differ from our own. We accept the fact that non-hunters and anti-hunters are just as sincere in their beliefs, as we are about hunting.

We appreciate that many others abide by their own code of ethics.  People commonly leave their cabins unlocked in backcountry areas so someone who is in trouble may use them in a time of need. However, those doing so are expected to replace anything they use as soon as possible and advise the owner of their actions. Ethical hunters will never abuse this privilege nor will they tamper with the equipment of others.

Relationship with other hunters

Ethical hunters show consideration for their companions and avoid doing anything that will interfere with another's hunt.  All sports are played within established rules and procedures. Officials and referees are used to enforce these rules, and participants who choose to break them are penalised, and often removed from the game. In such cases, the infraction is often the result of  unsportsmanlike conduct.

Hunting also has rules for good conduct and sportsmanship. There are certain dos and don'ts that all hunters must consider with respect to their manners in the field. More importantly, they have the responsibility for self-enforcement. There's no referee in this game, only you and other hunters!

In most cases, courtesy and sportsmanship are related to safety. The hunter who edges in on another in hopes of getting another shot is being discourteous, unsportsmanlike and dangerous. Such action causes haste and haste breeds carelessness.

The same applies to greedy hunters who just have to get some game. In trying to get the first shot off, they'll make mistakes, which could lead, to their own injury or the unnecessary wounding of an animal. And most of the time, they'll miss!

 Courteous hunters will give their companions the breaks. They never claim game when there is some doubt as to who made the shot. They never hog another's territory, and shoot only in their agreed upon zone of fire.

They never shoot at game on the skyline, nor will they take a shot out of range.
Courteous hunters will sight in their rifle before coming into the game area. Whether actually hunting or not, they move quietly through the bush, so as not to disturb other hunters or scare off game. They are willing to do their share of work around the camp, and will pay their share of the expenses.

The ethical hunter can best be described by the Golden Rule - if you always treat others as you would want your companions to treat you, you're probably doing a pretty good job. Courtesy, sportsmanship, and safety are the things to remember.

Self respect

Ethical hunters realise it is their responsibility to know how to take care of themselves in the outdoors. And they respect their limitations.
They never place their lives or that of others in jeopardy by failing to notify someone where they intend to hunt and how long they expect to be gone. If plans change once in the field, they leave a note on their vehicle designating destination, time of departure and expected time of return.
To cope with unexpected outdoor emergencies, an ethical hunter learns and practices the basic skills of first aid and survival.

Respect for game and wildlife

Feral animal control and population management programs do not mean that hunters have lost respect for wildlife but rather that the control action will improve habitat for native animals and reduce farm costs. The ethical hunter is concerned for wildlife and supporting eco-systems.
Ethical hunters are also naturalists. Their interest in wildlife extends beyond game animals to the variety of other living things that inhabit the outdoor world. They are just as thrilled by the sight of a goshawk as a game animal. They know and study nature's ways. If they don’t they won’t become very good hunters.

Through considerable practice before a hunt, ethical hunters will learn the distance at which they can be most confident of killing game cleanly. They will ensure that a firearm is accurately sighted in and determine the most effective bullet weight or shot size for the game they are hunting.
Once in the field, they will expend extraordinary effort to retrieve and dispatch wounded game even if it means interrupting their hunting to help another hunter locate a wounded animal. When possible, they will use a trained hunting dog to retrieve wounded game birds.

If it appears that a shot has missed, an ethical hunter will always carefully inspect the area where the quarry stood, to ensure the animal was not hit. Ethical hunters show as much respect for game after it is taken as before the shot. They never allow the meat or other useable parts of the animal to be wasted.  “You might as well learn that a man who catches fish or shoots game has got to make it fit to eat before he sleeps. Otherwise it’s all waste and a sin to take it if you can’t use it.” (Robert Ruark.)